Hormesis and Schisandrin B

So Dr. John and Dr. George have done a cursory investigation of Schisandrin B and have some questions regarding hormesis.

"Now, we have cursorily looked at the active ingredients, and have some issues on the scientific underpinnings. It basically relates to the theory of hormesis, which is a fancy way of saying a small amount of a thing that is bad for you is good for you.  It is what homeopathic medicine relies upon.  There is some truth to it, in some therapeutic paradigms, but we see it misapplied all the time.  So we will be peppering their scientific advisor with questions once this gets fully underway."

Okay, so let's address hormesis. Hopefully these links will make it easier for Dr. John, Dr. George and the BFT readers to see more than just a cursory look at our science.

Professor Ko has offered up 3 papers he has published on this topic.

The first:

Frontiers in Research:
Herbal Bioactive Molecules: The Hidden Jewels for Drug Development
Mitochondrial decay in ageing: ‘Qi-invigorating’ schisandrin B as a hormetic agent for mitigating age-related diseases

SUMMARY

1. The mitochondrial free radical theory of ageing (MFRTA) proposes a primary role for mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the ageing process. The reductive hot spot hypothesis of mammalian ageing serves as a supplement to the MFRTA by explaining how the relatively few cells that have lost oxidative phosphorylation capacity due to mitochondrial DNA mutations can be toxic to the rest of the body and result in the development of age-related diseases.
2. Schisandrin B (SchB), which can induce both a glutathione anti-oxidant and a heat shock response via redox-sensitive signalling pathways, is a hormetic agent potentially useful for increasing the resistance of tissues to oxidative damage. The enhanced cellular ⁄mitochondrial anti-oxidant status and heat shock
response afforded by SchB can preserve the structural and functional integrity of mitochondria, suggesting a potential role for SchB in ameliorating age-related diseases.
3. Future studies will focus on investigating whether SchB can produce the hormetic response in humans.

Click here for a link to the study

The second

Schisandrin B as a Hormetic Agent for Preventing Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases

SUMMARY

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction have been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, with the latter preceding the appearance of clinical symptoms. The energy failure resulting from mitochondrial dysfunction further impedes brain function, which demands large amounts of energy. Schisandrin B (Sch B), an active ingredient isolated from Fructus Schisandrae, has been shown to afford generalized tissue protection against oxidative damage in various organs, including the brain, of experimental animals. Recent experimental findings have further demonstrated that Sch B can protect neuronal cells against oxidative challenge, presumably by functioning as a hormetic agent to sustain cellular redox homeostasis and mitoenergetic capacity in neuronal cells. The combined actions of Sch B offer a promising prospect for preventing or possibly delaying the onset of neurodegenerative diseases, as well as enhancing brain health.

Click here for a link to the study

The third

Schisandrin B enhances the glutathione redox cycling and protects against oxidant injury in different types of cultured cells

SUMMARY

Tert-butylhydroperoxide (tBHP) challenge caused an initial depletion of cellular reduced glutathione (GSH), which was followed by a gradual restoration of cellular GSH in AML12, H9c2, and differentiated PC12 cells. The time-dependent changes in cellular GSH induced by tBHP were monitored as a measure of GSH recovery capacity (GRC), of which glutathione reductase (GR)-mediated glutathione redox cycling and c-glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL)-mediated GSH synthesis were found to play an essential role. While glutathione redox cycling sustained the GSH level during the initial tBHP-induced depletion, GSH synthesis restores the GSH level thereafter. The effects of (- )schisandrin B [(- )Sch B] and its analogs (Sch A and Sch C) on GRC were also examined in the cells. (- )Sch B and Sch C, but not Sch A, ameliorated the extent of tBHP-induced GSH depletion, indicative of enhanced glutathione redox cycling. However, the degree of restoration of GSH post-tBHP challenge was not affected or even decreased. Pretreatment with
(- )Sch B and Sch C, but not Sch A, protected against oxidant injury in the cells. The (- )Sch B afforded cytoprotection was abolished by N,N0-bis(chloroethyl)-N-nitrosourea pretreatment suggesting the enhancement of glutathione redox cycling is crucially involved in the cytoprotection afforded by (- )Sch B against oxidative stress-induced cell injury.

Click here for a link to the study

And here is just a quick response to this post.

http://barefacedtruth.com/2014/06/25/from-theory-to-glissandra/#comment-130371

drjohn

JUNE 26, 2014 AT 3:25 AM · REPLY

Not to be picky, but I am compelled to gently point out that the Glissandra web site on its home page makes this claim:

“Glissandra™ is the first bioceutical skincare regimen proven to effectively reduce the visible signs of skin aging.”

Oh, really? It’s one thing to brag and say you are the best, but telling us that all the other products in the biologic category are ineffective and do nada for skin aging? Now you either need to prove that claim (no others are effective except yours) or confess to indulgence in marketing hype.

I don't see where we say that other products in the biologic category are ineffective and do nada for skin aging. If I read this correctly, it simply says Glissandra™ is the first. Come on Dr. John, no need to run when nobody is chasing you. We coined the term bioceutical in 2008 by combining biology and nutraceutical as a marketing term. I guess others liked the term and are using it now.

Scientific debate with BareFacedTruth.com

I have been going back and forth for the past few weeks with Dr. John and Dr. George who run the blog, www.barefacedtruth.com.

They were intrigued with the science behind our products and asked if we would start a debate with them.

I have been following the BareFacedTruth blog for a number of months now, and it seems that no other MLM company was willing to back up their scientific claims, but then, no other MLM company has as much science behind their product like Glissandra does.

http://barefacedtruth.com/2014/06/25/from-theory-to-glissandra

To make this debate fair, we have both agreed to post our comments on each other's blogs. This way neither blog has the upper hand in the debate.

We are debating the science, not the MLM business model.

We encourage everyone to participate in asking questions about the science, and let's leave the MLM debate to another time and place.

So the rules are simple. Please don't plug Glissandra or the business opportunity. Sharing your personal stories about the product is fine, but make sure you don't exaggerate your testimonials. Truth Matters!

I know all of our Glissandra members are passionate about our products, and this debate is designed to showcase our science not our business plan.

You can ask questions about any ingredient in any product, as we have our doctors and their doctors monitoring the debate. I can't think of a better way to discuss the Theories of Aging and the science behind it.

Craig

Schisandra Berry

Here are some great links to get more information on the Schisandra Berry.

Chris Kilham, the Medicine Hunter, created a great video on location in North Eastern China at a Schisandra Berry Farm.

Here is a link to the video: http://youtu.be/O6nk05irmPA

Here is a link to his website: http://www.medicinehunter.com/schisandra

He also showcased the Schisandra Berry on the Dr. Oz show. Here are the links:

http://www.medicinehunter.com/schisandra-dr-oz1

http://www.medicinehunter.com/schisandra-dr-oz2

Speaking of Dr. Oz show, here is the link to segment on the Glutathione, our bodies Master Antioxidant. Schisandrin B helps to increase and recycle the Glutathione levels in your cells.

Here is the link to the show segment: http://youtu.be/4dh34aa_0Ng

Here is a link to the research paper: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17119269

Glissandrin™: The Ultimate Anti-Aging Skincare Ingredient

In our previous article, entitled “What have scientists found to fight the leading cause of skin aging – mitochondrial decay?”, we discussed how Schisandrin B and (−)Schisandrin B have been proven to be successful in that regard, dramatically improving the appearance of aging skin.

A study related to this was recently published in the Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, the official publication of the International Academy of Cosmetic Dermatology. “Mitochondria: a new focus as an anti-aging target in skin care”¹ confirms the important role of mitochondrial function in aging and advocates targeting mitochondria in the development of new products.

Here, we continue to explore the use of Schisandrin B and (−)Schisandrin B in the revolutionary new ingredient, Glissandrin™, which promises to change the way we approach skin care.

As discussed in previous articles, mitochondrial decay plays a fundamental role in the process of aging. Over time, cells lose the ability to function normally, falling victim to free radicals and the ensuing oxidative stress. The consequences of this appear as the visible signs of skin aging, including wrinkles, fine lines, age spots, loss of suppleness, and a marked deterioration in skin tone. 

Glissandrin™ 

Glissandrin™ is a suite of natural compounds isolated from the Schisandra berry. Consisting mainly of Schisandrin B and (−)Schisandrin B, Glissandrin™ also comprises (±)γ-Schisandrin, Schisandrin A, and Schisandrin C. Extensive researchⁱ on Glissandrin™ has confirmed its anti-aging properties on skin cells, most notably on its ability to target the fundamental cause of aging: mitochondrial decay. 

Research Findings

A. Mitochondrial decay in skin cells can be reversed by topical application of Glissandrin™ 

A 3-day application of Glissandrin™ cream (2% and 5%) to skin cells caused a dose-dependent increase in reduced glutathione (GSH) and α-tocopherol (α-Toc) levels in skin mitochondria. Glissandrin™ cream is able to enhance the antioxidant capacity of mitochondria and to reverse mitochondrial decay in aging skin cells.

Figure 1: Glissandrin™ enhances mitochondrial antioxidant capacity in the skin

Cream containing 2% or 5% Glissandrin™ was applied to skin cells on a daily basis for 3 days. The control group was treated with cream containing no Glissandrin™. Skin tissues were isolated and mitochondrial fractions were prepared. Mitochondrial reduced glutathione and α-tocopherol levels were measured. P < 0.05 when compared to the control, using Student’s t-test.

ⁱGlissandrin™ is the result of over 20 years of research and development at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST), led by Dr. Robert Ko, Professor of Life Science. HKUST was ranked 41st worldwide among research universities by Times Higher Education in 2010.

B. Mitochondrial functional capabilities in skin cells can be enhanced by topical 

application of Glissandrin™ 

Glissandrin™ also dose-dependently increased mitochondrial ATP (cellular energy) production in human skin cells, indicative of enhancement in mitochondrial functional ability.

Figure 2: Glissandrin™ enhances the mitochondrial functional ability in human skin cells

Cultured human skin cells were incubated with Glissandrin™ at the indicated concentration for 24 

or 48 hours. ATP generation capacity was measured in situ and data were expressed as the 

percentage of control. P < 0.05 when compared to the control, using Student’s t-test. 

C. In-vivo and in-vitro studies have confirmed other properties of Glissandrin™ 

that are beneficial to the skin2: 

• Emolliating proliferative skin conditions²

• Enhancing the natural antioxidative capabilities in skin cells³

• Increasing the expression of cellular heat shock proteins, thereby alerting 

the skin to adverse external environmental factors^{3 4}

• Suppressing inflammation⁵

• Inhibiting the production of collagenase, an enzyme that destroys collagen 

• Protecting skin cells from solar radiation – particularly UV – and repairing skin cells with UV damage^{5 6} 

• Reducing the destruction of elastin, a protein in the skin matrix responsible for skin elasticity⁶

• Inhibiting ATR protein kinase activity (cancer prevention)⁷

Glissandrin™ has been clinically tested to be safe for even the most sensitive skin, especially for users who experience adverse reactions to most skincare products. 

The desired level of biological availability and the purity of chemical compositions of 

Glissandrin™ are standardized through a proprietary process developed specifically for its 

manufacturing. Furthermore, the concentrations of the constituent compounds have been 

formulated for easy absorption, optimal efficacy, and a luxurious feel when applied to the skin.

Conclusion

The International Academy of Cosmetic Dermatology has spoken¹, and its message is clear: targeting mitochondrial decay is now the goal of the anti-aging industry. 

Without understanding and addressing mitochondrial decay, the leading cause of skin aging, most skincare products are ill-equipped to provide the real, sustainable results they promise. Fortunately, Glissandrin™ is available todayⁱⁱ as the ultimate anti-aging skincare solution.ⁱⁱⁱ

ⁱⁱGlissandrin™ formulations are available under a licensing agreement.

ⁱⁱⁱGlissandrin™ formulations are covered by the following patents: 

US Non-Provisional Patent # US 7,276,257 B2 

US Non-Provisional Patent # US 7,396,544 B2 

US Non-Provisional Patent Publication No. 2008/0167372 A1 

About Glissandra™ Skincare Inc. 

Glissandra™ Skincare Inc. is a network marketing company (also known as multi-level marketing
MLM, or direct sales) dedicated to providing effective anti-aging skincare through its holistic approach to skin health. Glissandra’s comprehensive skincare system is the result of over 23 years of research and development at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, led by Dr. Robert Ko. Over 160 research papers have been published on its key proprietary ingredient, Glissandrin™, a suite of natural compounds extracted from the Schisandra berry. In-vivo and in-vitro studies have proven the ability of Glissandrin™ to address mitochondrial decay, the leading cause of aging, and to enhance the cell’s natural ability to fight oxidative damage. (http://glissandra.com).

1. “Mitochondria: a new focus as an anti-aging target in skin care”; Menon et al, Global R&D, ISP Corporation, New Jersey, USA; Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology 2010, Wiley Periodicals Inc. 

2. “Composition and Biological Activity of Different Extract from Schisandra sphenanthera and Schisandra chinensis”; Huyke, et al., Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre, Freiburg, Germany; Planta Medica 2007. 

3. “Schisandrin B-induced increase in cellular glutathione level and protection against oxidant injury are mediated by the enhancement of glutathione synthesis and regeneration in AML12 and H9c2 cells”, Ko et al., Biofactors 2006; 26: 221-230. 

4. “Hepatoprotective mechanism of Schisandrin B: Role of mitochondrial glutathione antioxidant status and heat shock proteins”, Ko et al., Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2003; 35: 368-380. 

5. “Composition and Biological Activity of Different Extracts from Schisandra sphenanthera and Schisandra chinensis”, Huyke et al., Department of Dermatology, University Medical Center, Freiberg, Germany, Planta Med 2007 73: 1116-1126. 

6. “Schisandrin B protects against solar irradiation-induced oxidative injury in BJ human fibroblasts”; Ko et al.; Department of Biochemistry, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology; Fitoterapia 82 (2011) 682-691. 

7. “Inhibition of ATR protein kinase activity by Schisandrin B in DNA damage response”,
H. Nishida et al., Department of Applied Life Science, Niigata University of Pharmacy and Applied Life Sciences; Nucleic Acids Research 2009, Vol. 37, No. 17.

Mitochondrial Decay in Aging

Looking for more abstracts on mitochondrial decay and its role in aging?

Here is a link to an open archive abstract in 1995 by Bruce Ames: Division of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Barker Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3202, USA

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/092544399500024X

Prof. Robert Ko's research started a few years before this. You can read all his publications from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology at:

http://spfind.ust.hk/spfind/AuthorProfile/ko-robert-k-m

What have scientists found to fight the leading cause of skin aging - mitochondrial decay?

In our previous post, entitled “Theories of Aging”, we discussed how oxidative damage is regarded in the scientific community as the primary cause of aging, and how mitochondria play a significant role in this by being a major source of free radicals.

Now, scientists have made a breakthrough in fighting the leading cause of skin aging:
Schisandrins have been proven to effectively reverse mitochondrial decay.

A recap of our previous discussion 

Mitochondrial decay in aging refers to a
progressive disruption to mitochondrial
structural integrity and functional ability
over time. Consequently, cells experience
impaired energy production, a decline in
normal function, and accelerated free
radical generation. This is the
phenomenon of cellular aging, which
makes the cell more prone to apoptosis, or
programmed cell death – much like cell
suicide.

Skin aging - the signs of which are
commonly manifested in wrinkles, fine
lines, age spots, loss of suppleness, and
deterioration of skin tone – has been
proven to involve mitochondrial
dysfunction.

The mitochondria–free radical connection

Research has shown that mitochondria are a major source of free radicals. Deteriorating
mitochondria instigate a vicious cycle of exacerbated oxidative stress. Consistent with these
findings is the concept that “manipulating the signaling pathways that regulate cellular
antioxidant defense” and “controlling the intracellular levels of free radicals” is preferred over
“altering individual antioxidant components by extrinsic supplementation”.

In simpler terms, this means that it may be more effective to combat aging by treating the source
of free radical production rather than by “cleaning up” free radicals after they are generated. This
theory is supported by recent studies that have found that scavenging free radicals through the
supplementation of certain antioxidants could be ineffective or even harmful in the long run.^{i ii}

The role of Schisandrin B in skin-related mitochondrial decay 

There has been a substantial amount of research on remedies to combat mitochondrial decay as
an effective means of mitigating the aging process. Particularly noteworthy is the research
conducted by Dr. Bruce Ames (UC Berkeley) and Dr. Tory Hagen (Oregon State University),
who investigated the effects of acetyl-L-carnitine and alpha-lipoic acid on improving the
functional capability of mitochondria.

Over the past few decades, the
pharmacological activities of Schisandrin B,
an active ingredient isolated from Fructus
Schisandrae (commonly known as the
Schisandra berry), have been studied
extensively. Research conducted at RK-Lab at the Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology have demonstrated the protective
effect of Schisandrin B on free radical-induced damage in various vital organs, including the
heart, liver, kidney, and brain.

Research has shown that Schisandrin B is able to simultaneously:

1. enhance mitochondrial functional ability, and
2. increase natural mitochondrial antioxidant capacity. These are clear indications that this natural compound is effective in mitigating further mitochondrial decay, successfully defeating
this leading cause of skin aging.

In addition, Schisandrin B has been proven to be able to induce the expression of heat shock
proteins, endogenous protein molecules essential in cellular protection against various stressful
stimuli. The expression of heat shock proteins is believed by many in the scientific community to
be another crucial biochemical mechanism for fighting aging.

The latest research 

Recent research has found a stereoisomer of Schisandrin B, (−)Schisandrin B, to be even more 

potent in enhancing mitochondrial functional ability and in boosting the innate antioxidant 

capacity of mitochondria.

(−)Schisandrin B protects cells against oxidative stress, thereby preventing disease and enabling a 

healthier and longer lifespan. Without (−)Schisandrin B, cells are vulnerable to oxidative stress. 

This results in the loss of structural and functional integrity and cyto c release, and ultimately 

leads to cell death.

Implications for anti-aging skincare 

The pharmacological properties of Schisandrin B and (−)Schisandrin B have significant implications for anti-aging skincare, since skin is the largest organ of the human body, and oxidative damage has been recognized as one of the major factors that contribute to skin aging. Wrinkles, fine line, age spots, sagginess, loss of radiance, and many other signs of skin aging are all attributed to oxidative damage. 

Studies at RK-Lab at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technologyⁱⁱⁱ have validated the

beneficial effects of Schisandrin B and (−)Schisandrin B on skin cells and skin tissues. 

Furthermore, topical formulations using Schisandrin B and (−)Schisandrin B have been clinically 

tested on human subjects with remarkable anti-aging results. 

Schisandrin B and (−)Schisandrin B are the key compounds in Glissandrin™, an active 

ingredient in anti-aging skincare consisting of natural compounds extracted from the Schisandra 

berry. This active ingredient has been incorporated into the most advanced anti-aging skincare 

products, now available from Glissandra™ Skincare Inc. 

As the first active ingredient to holistically: 

1. address mitochondrial decay, 

2. increase natural cellular antioxidant capability, and 

3. target other causes of aging, 

Glissandrin™ is a breakthrough in the anti-aging skincare industry. 

More information on mitochondrial decay and theories of aging can be found at these independent websites:

National Institutes of Health (http://www.nih.gov)

PubMed (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed)

Natural Standard (http://www.naturalstandard.com)

ⁱMortality in Randomized Trials of Antioxidant Supplements for Primary and Secondary Prevention - Systematic Review and Meta-analysis, Bjelakovic et al; Journal of the American Medical Association 2007; 297(8):842-857 (doi:10.1001/jama.297.8.842). 

ⁱⁱVitamins in Aging, Health, and Longevity, David R Thomas; The Division of Geriatric Medicine, Saint Louis University Health Sciences Center, Saint Louis, MO, USA.

ⁱⁱⁱThe Hong Kong University of Science and Technology was ranked 57th among 400 universities and no.3 in world’s top 100 Universities Under 50 by Times Higher Education.

IACD Directive

In 2010, the International Academy of Cosmetic Dermatology issued a directive to the entire anti-aging skin care industry that mitochondria should be the new target in skin care.

You can read the manuscript in the Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology here:

IACD Directive

The article was authored by:

Gopinathan K Menon, PhD¹, Claude Dal Farra, PhD¹, Jean-Marie Botto, PhD² & Nouha Domloge, MD<sup>2

1</sup>Global R&D, ISP Corporation, Wayne, New Jersey, USA

²ISP Vincience Global Skin Research Center, Sophia Antipolis, France

Skincare Facts Article in The Examiner

Marjorie Rothstein wrote a very good article in The Examiner yesterday comparing the science and active ingredient from the Schisandra Berry, Schisandrin B, with the active ingredient Nerium Oleander.

Read the article here and feel free to comment.

http://www.examiner.com/review/skincare-facts-what-really-works

Marjorie Hope Rothstein is a spa trends specialist and "new aging" expert focused on the boomer consumer. As a Boomer Babe with her finger on the pulse of the latest leading edge breakthroughs in beauty and preventative health and wellness, she is passionate about finding and sharing her discoveries of the fountain of youth with you. If you want to find out how to live the 5 Star Life, check out her blog at http://livethe5starlife.blogspot.com.

Theories of Aging

Thank you all for participating in this discussion on aging and the science behind it.

Let me introduce our Chief Technology Officer, Prof. Robert Kam-Ming Ko. He is currently the Professor in the Division of Life Science at the Hong Kong University of Science & Technology. After graduating from the Chinese University of Hong Kong, he went on to Canada and obtained his Ph.D. in pharmacology at the University of British Columbia in 1990.

He then returned to Hong Kong to pursue his research work on Chinese herbal medicine. His research focuses on antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties in Chinese tonifying herbs in establishing their scientific basis in terms of modern medicine. He has edited three books and published more than 180 scientific papers and book chapters on related topics.

I trust that this information would be sufficient to qualify him as an expert in his field.

Let us start with the theories of aging.

Aging is a consequence of changes that are harmful, progressive, and thus far irreversible in most living organisms, including humans. Age-associated damage occurs to biomolecules, cells, and organs. Diseases such as arthritis, osteoporosis, heart diseases, cancer, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease occur more frequently with old age.

The biochemical mechanism of aging has long been an area of intensive research, and a number of theories of aging have been proposed, including the neuro-endocrine theory, which links aging to hormonal changes; immunological theory, which attributes aging to immune system dysfunction; telomerase theory, which relates to the shortening of chromosomes during cell division; and oxidative stress theory, which refers to free radical damage to cells; stem cell exhaustion, which refers to the decline in the regenerative potential of tissues due to decreased number of stem cells, and the decline in their abilities to differentiate.

Among these theories, it is reasonable to distinguish those that attempt to establish primary causes of aging from those that are secondary. For example, the telomerase theory may be secondary since the decrease in telomerase activity can be caused by the increase in cellular oxidative stress.

In gerontology, the study of aging, oxidative stress is increasingly recognized as the primary cause of aging.

The role of mitochondrial decay in aging

If oxidative stress is indeed the primary factor in skin aging, it is important to understand its roots. Scientists now believe that oxidative stress may be caused by mitochondrial decay. Mitochondria, the chief producers of both energy and oxidants inside the cell, play a critical role in the process of aging.

As energy producers, mitochondria convert unusable forms of energy into a usable chemical form known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is required for all vital cellular chemical reactions throughout the body. During the metabolic cycle of ATP production, oxidants are released from the mitochondria as harmful by-products that can damage important biomolecules, such as DNA, lipids, and proteins. At the same time, the mitochondria themselves are also victims of this metabolic cycle of ATP production as they are highly susceptible to damage by the oxidants thus released.

Over time, largely due to cumulated damage by the oxidants, the functional capabilities of mitochondria deteriorate; the production of ATP declines and the release of oxidants increases. The latter inflicts greater damage to the mitochondria, which in turn results in accelerated oxidant production. This is the vicious cycle of mitochondrial decay. If left unchecked, mitochondrial decay leads to cumulative damage in cellular biomolecules, resulting in a host of age-related diseases.

Effects of mitochondrial decay on the skin

The skin is the body's largest organ. The consequence of cumulative damage in skin cell biomolecules is a corresponding increase in the depletion of important extracellular components, such as collagen, elastin, and hyaluronic acid, among others. The loss of these significant components is manifested in the appearance of wrinkles, fine lines, droopiness, pigmentation, puffiness, skin inelasticity, enlarged pores, dryness, and a dull skin tone.

Conclusion

An increasing amount of scientific evidence confirms that mitochondrial decay is the fundamental cause of aging; therefore, scientists are endeavoring to find remedies to reverse the declining functional capabilities of mitochondria due to aging.

More information on mitochondrial decay and theories of aging can be found at these independent websites:

National Institutes of Health (http://www.nih.gov)

PubMed (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed)

Natural Standard (http://www.naturalstandard.com)